Psychological Research

Psychological Research:

Research —systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge—is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses (and the theories behind them) are accurate. Just as we can apply different theories and hypotheses to explain the same phenomena, we can use a number of alternative methods to conduct research. As we consider the major tools that psychologists use to conduct research, keep in mind that their relevance extends beyond testing and evaluating hypotheses in psychology. All of us carry out elementary forms of research on our own. For instance, a supervisor might evaluate an employee’s performance; a physician might systematically test the effects of different doses of a drug on a patient; a salesperson might compare different persuasive strategies. Each of these situations draws on the research practices we are about to discuss..

The scientific Method

Scientific method: The approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.

Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations

In using the scientific method, psychologists start by identifying questions of interest. We have all been curious at some time about our observations of everyday behavior. If you have ever asked yourself why a particular teacher is so easily annoyed, why a friend is always late for appointments, or how your dog understands your commands, you have been formulating questions about behavior.

Psychologists, too, ask questions about the nature and causes of behavior. They may wish to explore explanations for everyday behaviors or for various phenomena. They may also pose questions that build on findings from their previous research or from research carried out by other psychologists. Or they may produce new questions that are based on curiosity, creativity, or insight. Once a question has been identified, the next step in the scientific method is to develop a theory to explain the observed phenomenon. Theories are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. They provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of otherwise unorganized facts or principles.

All of us have developed our own informal theories of human behavior, such as “People are basically good” or “People’s behavior is usually motivated by self-interest.” However, psychologists’ theories are more formal and focused. They are established on the basis of a careful study of the psychological literature to identify earlier relevant research and previously formulated theories, as well as psychologists’ general

knowledge of the field. Growing out of the diverse approaches employed by psychologists, theories

vary both in their breadth and in their level of detail. For example, one theory might seek to explain and predict a phenomenon as broad as emotional experience. A narrower theory might attempt to explain why people display the emotion of fear nonverbally after receiving a threat (Guerrero, La Valley, & Farinelli, 2008; Waller, Cray, & Burrows, 2008). Psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley, responding to the failure of bystanders to intervene when Kitty Genovese was murdered in New York, developed what they called a theory of diffusion of responsibility (Latané & Darley, 1970). According to their theory, the greater the number of bystanders or witnesses to an event that calls for helping behavior, the more the responsibility for helping is perceived to be shared by all the bystanders. Thus, the greater the number of bystanders in an emergency situation, the smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels—and the less likely that any single person will come forward to help.

Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions

Although the diffusion of responsibility theory seems to make sense, it represented only the beginning phase of Latané and Darley’s investigative process. Their next step was to devise a way to test their theory. To do this, they needed to create a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it

to be tested. Hypotheses stem from theories; they help test the underlying soundness of theories.

In the same way that we develop our own broad theories about the world, we also construct hypotheses about events and behavior. Those hypotheses can range from trivialities (such as why our English instructor wears those weird shirts) to more meaningful matters (such as what is the best way to study for a test). Although we rarely test these hypotheses systematically, we do try to determine whether they are right.

Perhaps we try comparing two strategies: cramming the night before an exam versus spreading out our study over several nights. By assessing which approach yields better test performance, we have created a way to compare the two strategies.

A hypothesis must be restated in a way that will allow it to be tested, which involves creating an operational definition. An operational definition is the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed.

There is no single way to go about devising an operational definition for a hypothesis; it depends on logic, the equipment and facilities available, the psychological perspective being employed, and ultimately the creativity of the researcher. For example, one researcher might develop a hypothesis that uses as an operational definition of “fear” an increase in heart rate. In contrast, another psychologist might

use as an operational definition of “fear” a written response to the question “How much fear are you experiencing at this moment?”

Latané and Darley’s hypothesis was a straightforward prediction from their more general theory of diffusion of responsibility: The more people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely it is that help will be given to a victim. They could, of course, have chosen another hypothesis (try to think of one!), but their initial

formulation seemed to offer the most direct test of the theory.

Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons. For one thing, theories and hypotheses allow them to make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of information by permitting them to place the pieces within a coherent framework. In addition, theories and hypotheses offer psychologists the opportunity to move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained

phenomena and develop ideas for future investigation (Cohen, 2003; Gurin, 2006; Howitt & Cramer, 2000).

In short, the scientific method, with its emphasis on theories and hypotheses, helps psychologists pose appropriate questions. With properly stated questions in hand, psychologists then can choose from a variety of research methods to find answers..

The Major Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree:

The study and practice of psychology encompasses a vast range of topics and a large number of subfields and specialty areas have developed as a result. Because human behavior is so varied, the number of subfields in psychology is constantly growing and evolving.

Psychology can be roughly divided into two major sections:

1. Research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base
2. Practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real world
3. Because psychology touches on a number of other subjects including biology, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology, new areas of research and practice are continually forming and evolving. Some of these subfields have been firmly established as areas of interest, and many colleges and universities offer courses and degree programs in these topics.

4. Abnormal Psychology:

• This subfield of psychology deals with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychopathology.
• There are a variety of mental disorders that can cause distress and dysfunction. Some of these include mood disorder, anxiety disorders, and cognitive disorders. 
• Many different professionals work in the field of abnormal psychology and mental health including clinicians, counselors, psychiatric nurses, and psychiatrists. 

   Bio-psychology:

• This area of psychology is known by a number of titles including behavioral neuroscience, psychobiology, and neuropsychology.
• Biopsychologists study the relationship between the brain and behavior, such as how the brain and nervous system impact our thoughts, feeling, and moods.
• This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.

   Clinical Psychology:

• Clinical psychology is the largest specialty area in psychology.
• These psychologists apply psychological principles and research to assess, diagnose, and treat patients with mental and emotional illnesses.
• Clinicians often work in private practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

   Cognitive Psychology:

• Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding the mental processes of how people think.
• Problem-solving, decision-making, language, intelligence, and attention are just a few of the topics studied by cognitive psychologists.
• Cognitive psychologists often use an information-processing model to describe how the mind works, suggesting that the brain stores and processes information much like a computer.

   Developmental Psychology:

• Developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive development that occurs over the course of the lifespan.
• These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or geriatric development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays.

   Experimental Psychology:

• Experimental psychologists utilize the scientific method to study a while range of human behaviors and psychological phenomena.
• Experimental psychology is often viewed as a distinct subfield within psychology, but experimental techniques and methods are actually used extensively throughout every subfield of psychology.
• Some of the methods used in experimental psychology include experiments, correlational studies, case studies, and naturalistic observation.

   Health Psychology

• Health psychology is centered on understanding how psychological, biological, social, and environmental factors influence health and wellness.
• Health psychologists are often deal with health-related issues such as weight management, smoking cessation, stress management, and nutrition.
• Health psychologists are also involved in designing public prevention programs designed to educate people about risky behaviors and adopt healthier one..

   Industrial-Organizational Psychology:

• Psychologists in this field apply psychological principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior.
• Some psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and human-computer interaction.
• Research in this field is known as applied research because it seeks to solve real world problems.

   Personality Psychology:

• Personality psychologists study the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make each person unique.
• These psychologists often work in academic settings as instructors or researchers.

   Social Psychology:

• Social psychologists study social behaviors, including how individual self-image and behavior is impacted by interactions with others.
• These psychologists often conduct research in academic settings, but others work in such areas such as advertising and government.

   School Psychology:

• School psychologists work within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.
• These psychologists collaborate with teachers, parents, and students to find solutions to academic, social, and emotional problems.
• Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into private practice and serve as consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in school psychology.

A brief history of psychology

In a philosophical context psychology was around thousands of years ago in ancient Greece, Egypt, India, Persia and China. Medieval Muslim psychologists and doctors had a more clinical and experimental approach to psychology - they were the first to have psychiatric hospitals.

Pierre Cabanis (France) created biological psychology in 1802. A physiologist, Cabanis wrote a well known essay called "Relations between the physical and moral aspects of man" ("Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme"). He interpreted the mind according to his previous studies of biology. He believed that sensibility and soul were parts of the nervous system.

1879, the birthdate of psychology - In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt, Germany, founded psychology as a truly independent experimental field of study. He set up the first laboratory that carried out psychological research exclusively at Leipzig University. Wundt is known today as the father of psychology.

Principles of Psychology, published by William James, an American philosopher in 1980, was discussed by psychologists worldwide for many decades.

Hermann Abbingaus (1850-1909), University of Berlin, was the first psychologist to study memory extensively. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), famous today even among lay people for the term Pavlov's dog, researched the learning process called "classical conditioning."

Psychoanalysis

Behaviorism, psychoanalytic theory, humanism, and cognitive perspective are all studied currently by psychologists. Psychology has become much more eclectic.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Austria, developed psychoanalysis - a method of psychotherapy ("What is psychotherapy?"). His understanding of the mind was mainly based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. He focused on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories on sexuality and the unconscious mind became famous; probably because sexuality was a taboo subject at the time. The main principle of Freud's theory was that the unconscious is responsible for most thought and behavior in everybody and the disorders of the mentally ill. Freud had a considerable influence in psychiatrist Carl Jung (Switzerland).

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

E. B Titchener (USA), a student of Wundt, strongly believed in structuralism. William James and John Dewey were strong believers in functionalism. Structuralism is interested in "what is consciousness?" while functionalism is interested in "what is consciousness for? What are the purposes or functions of consciousness and basic mental processes?"

Structuralists and functionalists disagreed with each other passionately. Most agree there was never a clear winner in the debate - but their discussion did lead to a rapid spread of psychology in the USA, as well as some other parts of the world. Stanley Hall set up the first psychology lab in the United States at Johns Hopkins University.

Behaviorism

In 1913 an American psychologist, John B. Watson, founded a new movement that altered the focus of psychology. Watson believed that structuralists and functionalists deviated too much from objective science. Put simply, Watson said that psychology should focus on the study of behavior because he believed that behavior was not the result of internal mental processes, but rather the result of how we respond to stimuli from the environment. Behaviorism focused on how people learn new behavior from the environment. Behaviorism became very popular in the USA. B. F Skinner followed in Watson's footsteps.

Humanism

Some psychologists viewed behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory as too dehumanizing. Rather than being victims of the environment or the unconscious, humanists said that humans are innately good and that our own mental processes played an active role in our behavior. The humanist movement valued highly our emotions, free will, and a subjective view of experience.

Cognitive Theory

This started in the 1970s and is seen as the most recent school of thought in psychology. Cognitive perspective is much more objective and calculating than humanism. However, it differs from behaviorism in that it focuses on mental processes extensively.

Cognitive theorists believe that we take in information from our environment through our senses and then process the data mentally by organizing it, manipulating it, remembering it, and relating it to information we had stored previously. Cognitive theory is applied to language, memory, learning, perceptual systems, mental disorders and dreams.

Today

Dominant movements do not really exist today in the way they used to. Behaviorism, psychoanalytic theory, humanism, and cognitive perspective are all studied currently by psychologists. Psychology has become much more eclectic (selecting what appears to be best from every doctrine, movement or school of thought)..

what is psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.  Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.

Psychology is really a very new science, with most advances happening over the past 150 years or so.  However, it's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, 400 – 500 years BC.  The emphasis was a philosophical one, with great thinkers such as Socrates influencing Plato, who in turn influenced Aristotle.

Philosophers used to discuss many topics now studied by modern psychology, such as memory, free will, attraction etc.

In the early days of psychology there were two dominant theoretical perspectives.  An American psychologist named William James (1842-1910) developed an approach which came to be known as functionalism.  He argued that the mind is constantly changing and it is pointless to look for the building blocks of experience. Instead, focus should be on how and why an organism does something. It was suggested that psychologists should look for the underlying cause of behavior and the mental the processes involved. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior has influenced contemporary psychology.

Structuralism was the name given to the approach pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt. The term originated from Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who had been trained by Wundt. Structuralism relied on trained introspection, a research method whereby subjects related what was going on in their minds while performing a certain task. However, it proved to be unreliable method because there was too much individual variation in the experiences and reports of research subjects.

Despite the failing of introspection Wundt is an important figure in the history of psychology as he opened the first laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879, and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Wundt was important because he separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind using more objective and standardized procedures.

Because psychology is a science it attempts to investigate the causes of behavior using systematic and objective procedures for observation, measurement and analysis,backed-up by theoretical interpretations, generalizations, explanations and predictions.

The classic contemporary perspectives in psychology to adopt these strategies were the behaviorists, who were renowned for their reliance on controlled laboratory experiment and rejection of any unseen or subconscious forces as causes of behavior.  And later,cognitive psychology adopted this rigorous, scientific, lab based scientific approach too.

With its broad scope, psychology investigates an enormous range of phenomena: learning and memory, sensation and perception, motivation and emotion, thinking and language, personality and social behavior, intelligence,  child development,mental illness, and much more.

Furthermore, psychologists examine these topics from a variety of complementary psychological perspectives. 

Each psychological perspective is underpinned by a shared set of assumptions of what people are like, what is important to study and how to study it.  Some conduct detailed biological studies of the brain, others explore how we process information; others analyze the role of evolution, and still others study the influence of culture and society.

Critical Evaluation

Kuhn (1962) argues that a field of study can only legitimately be regarded as a science if most of its followers subscribe to a common perspective or paradigm. Kuhn believes that psychology is still pre-paradigmatic, while others believe it’s already experienced scientific revolutions (Wundt’s structuralism being replaced by Watson’s behaviorism, in turn replaced by the information-processing approach). The crucial point here is: can psychology be considered a science if psychologists disagree about what to study and how to study it?